Gary Dewey – Triple Cities Makerspace, Inc.

Project Profile: Reach For Near Space

On June 29th., 2019, four members of Triple Cities Makerspace launched, tracked, and recovered a high-altitude balloon.

Left to Right: Gary Dewey (KD2PYB), Adam Biener, Erik Leonard, John Flinn (N2NOL)

The balloon used was a 600-gram weather balloon filled with around 100 cubic feet of helium.

The payload consisted of: an HD video camera, an APRS radio transmitter to transmit GPS and altitude data, and a Slow Scan TV transmitter.

The APRS (Automatic Packet Reporting System) transmitter module was supposed to send live GPS coordinates and altitude information on the frequency of 144.390 MHz to any listening I-gates (radio internet gateways) for the duration of the flight.

The Slow Scan TV system consisted of a Raspberry Pi Zero with a Pi camera and a digital to analog converter sound card. The Pi was set up with a Linux daemon script to repeatedly snap a photo, convert it to a Martin-1 Slow Scan TV audio file, then play that file out through a radio transmitter. This would allow us to send live photos during the flight to amateur radio listeners all over the Northeastern region of the United States!

Both of these systems were tested before being assembled and incorporated into the balloon payload container, but both systems experienced problems during the first half of the flight, as the balloon ascended to its peak altitude with the payload. The APRS transmitter was “stuck on” and sent a non-decodable signal for the duration of the first half of the flight, and the SlowScan TV system’s scripted repetition delay of 1 ms ended up providing insufficient time for the camera to adjust for sun saturation, as the first half of the mission the system sent “green” frames.

Given these problems, the TCMS recovery team decided to attempt to track the balloon along its predicted flight path by following Route 17 East. We pulled off the highway in Hancock, NY, and attempted to “find” the direction the balloon was traveling by using a directional yagi antenna and the balloon’s SSTV signal.

Predicted flight path, generated using https://predict.habhub.org/

Erik then noticed that the SSTV system had started to produce “non-green” photos! Apparently the balloon had reached an altitude where the sun’s image saturation was less of a problem.

Around this time many amateur radio operators from other states started capturing images and uploading them to the project’s website https://reachfornearspace.com/users-post-gallery/

Unfortunately no data was generated when the balloon reached its peak altitude, but we estimate that it ascended to ~70,000 feet as the APRS GPS system started transmitting data while descending, and the first packet transmitted recorded an altitude of 69,559 feet.

APRS data packets received during descent.

The furthest SSTV signal report came in from Cleveland, Ohio, with an estimated signal distance of ~342 miles!

Cleveland is just barely within line-of-sight signal range of the balloon with an altitude of ~70,000 feet:

SSTV coverage shown in the purple radius.

Other signal reports came from Connecticut (~111 miles), Maine (~292 miles), Maryland (~234 miles), and Rhode Island (~196 miles)!

The last APRS packet was transmitted near the Sullivan County Airport at an altitude of ~3000 feet.

We drove to the airport and attempted to find the balloon and its payload with the help of the airport’s personnel. Because there were no local i-gates (APRS Internet Gateways) nearby, we didn’t initially have the payload’s final GPS coordinates; but using a handheld radio and the apsdroid app on my phone, I was able to receive a signal and retrieve the final GPS coordinates!

We retrieved the payload shortly afterwards; its parachute allowed all of the equipment to land without damage, and we retrieved HD video footage of the balloon’s ascent from the HD camera’s microSD card! The camera recorded in 5 minute segments, which we stitched together and uploaded to YouTube:

Full ascent in HD

Here is the final video segment recorded near the peak (apogee) of the balloon’s flight; the camera shut off shortly afterwards for reasons unknown:

Apogee footage.

We have no APRS data for the balloon’s ascent, but we can compare the predicted vs the actual data for the balloon’s descent:

There is also no video footage for the descent, but it can be simulated by putting the APRS data into Google Earth:

Simulated Landing footage.

Despite the problems with the APRS transmitter and SSTV camera saturation, this was a fantastic project and experience! I have learned a lot about radio, public relations, web programming and more in the process, and intend to try a similar project soon.

Special thanks to the Triple Cities Makerspace Crew for assisting me with the balloon launch and recovery, and thanks to all participating radio operators: W3AVP KB1PVH W3BAS N3CAL AC1GX N9AGC K6LPM KY1K KB3PQT N2TMS KB2BLS NP2GG N3EPY N3FWE KC9ONY WB8REI N8WAC

All photos and video footage courtesy of and property of Gary Dewey.

Fox Hunt: A Radio Adventure

A few months ago I had the opportunity to participate in something called a “fox hunt” – or a hidden transmitter hunt – with the Binghamton Amateur Radio Association (BARA). This activity brings together a group of people to find a radio transmitter which has been hidden and is broadcasting on a specific frequency; they are tasked with finding the transmitter based on radio signal strength, which is usually accomplished by using a directional antenna, such as a yagi antenna. The term ‘directional’ in the context of radio antennas means that the antenna picks up a signal best when it is aimed at the source.

Prior to the hunt taking place, BARA offered a class where we made directional yagi antennas out of cheap, simple materials like PVC pipe and tape measures (see pictures below). I used the antenna I created with a radio having an ‘s’ meter, or signal strength meter, so that I could visually observe and measure signal strength of the hidden ‘fox’ (or transmitter). The general strategy of ‘foxhunting’ is to find at least 2 places where you can point the antenna and “shoot a bearing” (get a compass direction) on the signal; where these two imaginary lines intersect on a map should be close to where the hidden transmitter is located. This strategy is similar to how cell phone signal triangulation and the GPS works!

I started searching for the ‘fox’ at my house, moving my antenna in all directions while listening in on the pre-specified frequency. I didn’t hear anything, so I decided to drive to the Oakdale Mall to see if I could hear anything from there. When I tried again from the mall, I could hear a signal with medium strength (S5) on that frequency when my antenna was aimed towards Endicott, so the next step was to drive towards Endicott to get another ‘fix’ on the signal’s transmitting location.

Driving towards Endicott on Watson Blvd., I stopped to shoot a bearing at the Polar Driving Range. I was getting an extremely strong (S9) signal reading from there, so I figured that the transmitter must be close by. As it turned out, the hidden transmitter WAS nearby: it was hidden at the Elk’s Club on Watson Blvd.

Fox hunts are a great way to develop skills in orienteering, and can be useful for search and rescue operations as well! These skills will also come in handy on my upcoming high altitude balloon project, in which I’ll track the balloon using APRS and hopefully recover it using readings of the balloon transmitter’s signal strength at its landing site. I’m looking forward to my next fox hunt!

Picture credits:

All photos provided and owned by Gary Dewey.

APRS: More Cool Things You Can Do With Radio

I’ve recently acquired my amateur radio license (technical level) and joined the Binghamton Amateur Radio Association (BARA). BARA is based out of the Kopernik Observatory and Science Center, and among their fairly extensive collection of equipment is a 2 Meter Band Yaesu radio connected to a computer with a Terminal Node Controller (TNC), which performs digital repeating for their instance of APRS (Automatic Packet Reporting System). I worked on a project to migrate their current setup to a Raspberry Pi and tnc-pi based system , which meant that I got to learn about APRS!

APRS is a means of communicating real-time data using radio, such as weather information from weather stations, station/radio tracking via GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites, text messages, and more. The radio transmits a series of tones (which sound like a modem) to one or more digital repeaters, known as digipeaters, that take a radio signal broadcast from another station and re-transmit it to other stations. Some of these digipeaters may also be connected to the Internet to relay packets containing these signals over TCP/IP; such stations are called I-gates. You can see these stations and their positions on the website https://aprs.fi.

Stations can choose what icon is used to represent them on this website – e.g. a blue ‘wx’ icon indicates a weather station. Clicking on the station brings up current local information such as reported temperature, humidity, wind speed, etc. – all reported with radio!

A green star with a “D” in the center and a callsign usually indicates a digipeater station – i.e., a station that listens for packets and retransmits them to other stations. Clicking on the star brings up other information such as equipment used, comments, last active date/time, packet path, etc. If it is an I-gate, it may receive packets from the internet and retransmit them over radio, or vice-versa.

Some stations may use “cars/trucks/phone” as their icon to indicate mobile operation, where vehicles transmit GPS data indicating their current location to allow aprs.fi to track them. This method can also be used in high altitude weather balloons to aid in tracking them for recovery once they’ve landed! Sometimes mobile amateur radio operators give comments about what frequencies they are monitoring or talking on, to allow other operators to easily communicate with them.

There is a lot of other information on this website as well, including messages and raw packet data. Since these packets are relayed between repeaters without encryption, it is important to note that any messages/data transmitted in this fashion are not private; and, if the receiving station is not “online” (on the air), they will not receive the message.

So, what uses are there for APRS besides weather, position tracking, and finding other amateur radio operators to talk with? Turns out that there are a few interesting use scenarios. If an operator sends a message to the call sign “SMSGTE”, they can send a text message to any cell phone user! Or, if an operator sends a message to “EMAIL-2”, they can send an email to anyone! This means an amateur radio operator can send text messages and email without having cell phone service! There are even a few digipeaters on satellites and on the International Space Station (although as of this writing the ISS digipeater is not currently operational)!

I’m still learning a lot about radio and APRS, and all of the cool things you can do with them. If you’d like to learn more about APRS, please check out http://www.aprs.org/

Contact from the International Space Station! (aka “Selfies from Space”, part 2)

To celebrate Cosmonautics Day on April 12th, the International Space Station began transmitting slow scan tv images related to the Interkosmos project from April 11th-14th, using a Kenwood TM-D710 transceiver located in the Russian ISS Service module which broadcasted on the frequency 145.800 MHz. I found out about this event from an amateur satellite radio organization called amsat; and with my new interest in radio image reception, I planned to attempt to make contact with the ISS and decode some of these images.

I purchased a Baofeng UV-5R handheld radio capable of receiving radio transmissions on the specified frequency (which my SDR / antenna combo from part 1 of “Selfies from Space” could also receive, but was more unwieldy to use), and used a Sony voice recorder to record the transmissions. I could then play back and decode the transmissions with a program on my PC called mmstv, or an app on my phone called Robot36. While it is possible to decode the recorded transmissions in realtime, I preferred to record the transmission and then try different programs/settings to decode the recording. I also used a website called satview to look up times when the International Space Station would be overhead, as these intervals would be short in duration (around 6-8 minutes) and the transmission equipment on the ISS required a minute or two of rest time between sending images. This meant that I might have only captured part of one image and then the whole of another image, or the whole of one image then part of another one, depending on timing. Finally, I also struggled with radio interference, which resulted in some of the images I captured being fuzzy.

Below are some examples of images I decoded from the ISS during this radio event:

Finally, here is a video demonstrating decoding of one of these image transmissions using the App Robot36 on my phone (Note: you may want to turn your sound down if you are sensitive to certain noises).

I look forward to future events like this, and – if I set up a radio transmitter – maybe even getting the chance to talk to an astronaut!

Picture credits:

All photos provided and owned by Gary Dewey.

Project Profile: Selfies from Space

I’ve always been a space geek, interested in astronomy and cosmic travel. Recently I’ve become obsessed with a new space-related hobby – downloading images of the Earth as signals from weather satellites! I call this hobby “selfies from space” because the images are created in real-time; if the images’ resolution were greater and you had the ability to zoom in sufficiently, then you could see me standing outside with my antenna capturing the images.

I first became interested in this hobby because I had purchased a $20 RTL-SDR (Software Defined Radio) on a whim many months ago, and decided to finally make some use of it. I did some research online and found that it was possible to capture satellite downlink data using my radio with an antenna tuned to receive the correct radio frequency. This means that the legs or poles of the antenna must have a specific length in order to resonate or vibrate at the desired radio frequency. The principle behind this resonance is similar to the phenomena of a tuning fork: when a vibrating tuning fork is placed near a stationary fork, the stationary fork begins to vibrate at the same frequency as the vibrating fork. A simple antenna design I found online which would work for this purpose is called a V-dipole antenna (https://www.rtl-sdr.com/simple-noaameteor-weather-satellite-antenna-137-mhz-v-dipole/).

This antenna is a half wavelength design, which means each pole is as long as the quarter wavelength of the desired frequency. If we take the speed of light (300,000,000 meters/sec) and divide by the desired frequency (137,000,000 hertz), we get 2.1898 meters as the wavelength and .54 meters / 54 centimeters as the quarter wavelength. I bought some aluminum rods at the local Home Depot and cut them to the quarter wavelength in the TCMS metal shop; I couldn’t find a “Choc block” at Home Depot to tie the rods together, but I did find some aluminum grounding bars which worked as an acceptable substitute. I then mounted the grounding bars to a 2″x4″ piece of wood with 120º angle between each bar, inserted the cut rods into the bars, and attached a stripped piece of 50Ω coaxial cable between the grounding bars and my radio.

Finished Antenna:

The software which I use to control the radio and record the signals is called SDR#. You can download SDR# here as one package, complete with many useful plugins; you will also need to install drivers for the radio, using the installation guide linked here.

Most of the weather satellites that are available in our geographic region are sun-synchronous or polar orbiting, which means that the satellites “pass by” our location from horizon to horizon. There are also some geosynchronous weather satellites (synced with Earth’s rotation to seem stationary), but most of these are located near the equator and are out of range of my antenna. There is a very limited time to download signals from sun-synchronous satellites, as they are moving very quickly and are very far away – about 8-15 minutes per pass, and at an altitude of 520 miles above sea level. Therefore, we need to be able to predict when satellites will pass by our location so that we can be prepared to capture data from them ahead of time. There are several websites with satellite time/location data, as well as a program called Orbitron which has a few other useful features, such as frequency correction for the Doppler effect caused by the satellites moving across the sky relative to me as I receive data from it.

I have used this antenna and radio to download images from the following satellites: NOAA-15 (@ 137.620 Mhz), NOAA-18 (@ 137.9125 Mhz), NOAA-19 (@ 137.100 Mhz), and Russia’s Meteor M2 (@ 137.900 Mhz). The NOAA satellites use an AM (amplitude modulation)-based system called APT (Automated Picture Transmission) to encode its data transmissions. If you were to attach a speaker to my radio, you could hear beeping and clicking as the transmissions are received, similar to the way in which fax machines sound/work. APT data can be decoded with many programs, including APT decoder and WXtoIMG. These programs convert the APT data into line by line pictures, and also have various enhancement / filtering tools which can be used to manipulate or add additional data to the newly-generated APT photos, such as map overlays. These photos have 2 channels, one with an data from an infrared camera or filter, and another with data from a regular spectrum camera; they also contain telemetry data on the sides of each picture.

Here are a sampling of APT photos taken by the NOAA satellites whose transmissions I captured:

The Russian Meteor M2 satellite uses the LRPT (Low Rate Picture Transmission) method of data transmission. LRPT is modulated with something called quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK), which uses differences of phases in the carrier wave (0º, 90º, 180º, or 270º) in order to send 2 bits of data at a time. It can transmit photo data with higher resolution than can be accomplished with APT, but it also requires a larger frequency bandwidth and generates larger raw files. The signal doesn’t sound like anything intelligible, just a bunch of static. Nevertheless, when demodulated with a plugin for SDR# (which generates a .s file) and then decoded with an LRPT offline decoder, a higher resolution photo is created – as seen in the photos below. You’ll note that I get images only of geographic locations that have radio contact with the satellite (realtime scanning), and that there appears to be some black lines from missing data; some these are from signal loss, but some are caused by transmitter malfunctions from the satellite.

The satellite’s path indicated by a blue line (above), and the resulting image from that pass (below).

The meteor M2 photos are from 3 channels which, when combined, create a color photo (red, green, blue); but during night time passes, only black and white photos can be rendered (probably due to the lack of sunlight).

This project has been a fun way for me to learn more about space, satellites, weather, and radio. I was given the opportunity to give a speech at Rutger’s University for their Space Technology Association at Rutgers Club, which can be viewed at https://youtu.be/qZ1JNfDFjqo. At the end of the speech, I gave the club 2 antennas, 2 USB software-defined radios, and DVDs containing the software they’ll need to record and decode images on their own.

I’ve also started working on a related project: using a Raspberry Pi with an SDR, antenna, and some scripts to automate the data recording process so that I can capture and create satellite images while I’m at work or sleeping. I’m also researching methods of uploading the images to Twitter automatically – because capturing and creating images is cool, but doing that while getting sleep is awesome! 🙂

Picture credits:

All photos provided and owned by Gary Dewey, except for “Adam’s v-dipole.” Admin. RTL-SDR.com. 1 March 2017. Web. 18 April 2018.

Hacking Myself

Electronics and computer-based technologies are integrating into our society at an ever-increasing rate, and – despite the potential for them to be abused – I find myself excited at the possibilities of what can be achieved with the latest developments in those areas. I am especially fascinated with wireless technology. Unseen energy being utilized to accomplish various tasks using WiFi, Bluetooth, RFID and NFC. It’s like magic to me!

Our Makerspace uses RFID tags to control access to the building. To enter, you scan your tag, enter a PIN (personal identification number) which is verified against the list of access credentials on TCMS’ server, and upon verification a relay is energised to unlock the door. This system benefits the Makerspace in terms of both cost and administration, as RFID tags are cheaper than making keys for everyone and as their use gives the TCMS board the ability to track and monitor the level of activity at the Space. One day I accidentally locked my keys inside the building, and needed to wait to be “rescued” by another member of the Makerspace. I vowed that this would never happen again, and remembered that one of our other members had taken what some would say extreme measures to have an RFID chip implanted into his hand! I had been fascinated by the potential applications of this procedure, which include access controls like normal RFID tags. The RFID chip used is about the size of a grain of rice, and is sealed inside a glass enclosure.

I decided to take this idea a step further – I would get an RFID tag implanted in one hand, and an NFC tag implanted in the other hand.

The RFID chip was cheap (~ $10) and non-programmable; it contains a unique PIN, which I had entered into the TCMS access credentials system. I use this chip to gain access to the Makerspace now. It is in my right hand, so I “scan” my right hand at the door, enter the chip’s PIN, and voila – the Makerspace door opens. No more losing tags or keys!

The chip in my left hand is an NFC, or Near Field Communications, chip. This chip cost around $99 from DangerousThings (https://dangerousthings.com/shop/xnti/), and is programmable with my phone using the DangerousThings app (available through the Android apps store at https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.dangerousthings.nfc&hl=en); I have also found the NFC Tools app to be useful. I used this app to scan and program my chip to protect it against accidental locking, which would make it non programmable.

I have added my chip to the lists of access credentials on various trusted devices so that I can, for example, unlock my phone by scanning my tag (tapping my phone to the back of my hand). I have also used the NFC tools app to program my chip to carry my ‘vcard’, or virtual business contact card, which allows me to transfer my contact information (name, phone number, email address, etc. ) to someone else’s phone by tapping their phone on my hand! Unfortunately this will not work on iPhones, as Apple has restricted NFC functionality to be used exclusively with their iPay app; but Android phones permit it so long as their NFC functionality is enabled.

Building further on these basic applications, I’ve loaded a profile (script and data) onto my chip with a link to my resume, so that if you scan my tag it prompts you to download my resume from my website! So cool – I’d hire me! 😀 Finally, I’ve created and loaded another profile to save my personal emergency information (name, allergies, blood type, emergency contact info), which can be transferred to someone else’s phone in a similar way. I am considering getting some sort of tattoo to indicate the implant’s presence to emergency personnel; if anyone reading this has any ideas about how I should go about doing this, please let me know!

I feel like a spy with this kind of technology literally embedded inside of me! I am excited to see the future of implantable technology development and applications, and cannot wait for the day when I can pay for things by scanning my hand!

Picture References:

All pictures and videos provided and owned by Gary Alan Dewey, except for “Quarter and Transponder”. Dangerous Things. Dangerous Things. 4 March 2018. Web. 4 March 2018.

The Basics of Cryptography, part 1

Encryption has been a buzzword in the technical world for the past few decades; but in light of recent events, such as the San Bernardino terrorism case, encryption has become important to the average person as well. Encryption is a procedure for taking ordinary information (known as plaintext) and converting it into an unrecognizable format (known as ciphertext). The history of encryption can be traced back as far as Julius Caesar, who used a substitution cipher (as shown in picture 1, below). A cipher is a pair of algorithms used to encrypt and decrypt data, like an equation. In a substitution cipher, you substitute characters in your message with other characters using some sort of scheme. In this way, Caesar would send encrypted messages to his army. For example, let’s say the substitution key is 3, so each letter is shifted to the right by 3. Using this key, “hello reader” becomes “fcjjm pcybcp”.

As you may be able to tell, this cipher is vulnerable to an attack known as frequency analysis or pattern words. In this attack, the most frequent letters are tallied and matched up with the most frequently used letters in the alphabet; with enough pattern-matching, the substitution key can usually be derived.

Another classical cipher used was the transposition cipher, where the letters are rearranged somehow to jumble the plaintext. A modern example of this which you may know is “pig latin”, where you take the first syllable of a word and move it to the back to form a new word.

The Greek military is also thought to have used stenography, which is hiding a message in plain sight. They did this using something called a scytale: they would wrap a parchment around a wooden rod, write their message on the parchment, then unwrap the parchment and add letters in between those already written (see picture 2, below). Only someone with an identical wooden rod would be able to decipher the message. Another example of early stenography was tattooing a message on a slave’s shaved head and waiting for the hair to grow back to cover up the message.

Stenographic methods have become increasingly complex over the past couple of millennia, with forms like invisible ink, microdots, and hiding information in the compressed space of music files (as seen in the tv show Mr. Robot) becoming popular. Another common method is to store your secret information in a photo file, since these files are also compressed and do not require all the bits to recreate the photo.

These methods of concealing information for secure communications are apart of a larger family of study called cryptography, which in Greek translates to hidden or secret writing. A fairly famous example of cryptography is the Enigma device, used by the German military during WWII to send secret messages. The large computer systems developed to help crack the Enigma code helped usher in the modern age of computers. Fast forward to today, and cryptography is used every day by ordinary people, not just spies and military personnel. Online banking and credit card transactions, email, electronic voting, anonymous web surfing, regular web surfing and social media are all areas where modern cryptography is used without many people ever realizing it.

In the information security world, there is a principle known as the C.I.A. triad, which stands for Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability. Confidentiality is the ability to keep your information safe and secure from unauthorized entities, which can be equated with privacy. Integrity deals with the consistency, accuracy, and confidentiality of your data. Availability is just what it sounds like: having your data or services available to you and whoever else needs access at all times. Cryptography can aid in confidentiality and integrity. As we have discussed earlier, encryption supports confidentiality by ensuring your message/data is not readable by an unauthorized party. Integrity is supported by using various cryptographic algorithms to ensure data has not been tampered with or altered; i.e., the original data is put through an equation to derive an ‘answer’, which you receive a copy of. If you then receive a copy of the data, put it through the same equation, and receive a different ‘answer’, your integrity check fails. These checks are sometimes known as hashes, of which there are various types depending on the algorithm used. They are used in a wide variety of applications, e.g. proving the integrity (lack of tampering or file corruption) of files downloaded from the Internet by checking them against their authenticated hashes or checksums.

Modern cryptography for confidentiality can be divided into two categories: symmetric key cryptography and public key cryptography. Symmetric key cryptography uses the same password or passcode to encrypt and to decrypt the data. This can be a security concern because of low confidence regarding secure sharing of the password. It may be a decent algorithm / scheme to use to encrypt data for your own use, which is what most full-disk or file system encryption systems use, but it’s not recommended for use when sharing data among multiple users. This scheme may be used to encrypt multiple kinds of devices: laptop hard drives, phones, tablets, flash/thumb drives, individual files, and so on.

The preferred method used to encrypt data shared among multiple users is public key encryption, which uses two different keys: a public key and a private key. The public key is just that, public; it’s the key you give to any other user, and can be publicly known. The private key is also just that, private, and is related to the public key in a way such that it can decrypt something encrypted with the public key. Anyone can encrypt a message for you using your public key, which you can then decrypt with your private key, which nobody should know except for you. Public keys can be also digitally signed by other users with their private keys, which means the people that have signed the key have verified the key owner’s identity. This creates a web of trust. Let’s say Don trusts/knows Bob but not Alice; since Bob trusts/knows Alice, Don inherently trusts Alice’s key/identity due to his trust of Bob.

A good example of a public key encryption system is GPG (GNU Privacy Guard), a free replacement for PGP (Pretty Good Privacy), as PGP used to be free but was bought by Symantec. GPG public key encryption can be used to encrypt email messages and files, and also has some built in features for integrity (verification of user identity). For example, let’s say Alice wants to email Bob a secure message. Alice could look up Bob’s public key from a public key server, or get it directly from Bob and use it to encrypt her email to Bob. She then digitally signs her message using her private key. When Bob receives the email, he decrypts the message using his private key, and verifies her digital signature using Alice’s public key.

Thank you for joining me for a brief history and overview of cryptography and encryption! Stay tuned for future blog posts where I hope you will join me as we explore cryptography and encryption in more detail. You will learn how to better protect yourself and your data in today’s computer age.

Text References and Resources:

“Cryptography: History of cryptography and cryptanalysis.” Wikipedia.org. Wikipedia, 25 July 2016. Web. 1 Sept. 2016.

“GNU Privacy Guard.” Wikipedia.org. Wikipedia, 15 Aug. 2016. Web. 1 Sept. 2016.

“Outline of cryptography.” Wikipedia.org. Wikipedia, 21 July 2016. Web. 1 Sept. 2016.

Picture References:

Skytala. Digital Image. Wikimedia Commons. Wikimedia Commons. 16 Feb. 2007. Web. 1 Sept. 2016.

Resources:

The Electronic Frontier Foundation, https://www.eff.org.